JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE
Integrity Research Journals
ISSN: 2536-7099
Model: Open Access/Peer Reviewed
DOI: 10.31248/JASVM
Start Year: 2016
Email: jasvm@integrityresjournals.org
Pathogenesis of anaemia and its relationship with hepato-splenomegaly in African animal trypanosomosis: A review
https://doi.org/10.31248/JASVM2026.652 | Article Number: 7B2B229112 | Vol.11 (4) - August 2026
Received Date: 01 April 2026 | Accepted Date: 05 June 2026 | Published Date: 08 August 2026
Authors: Davinson Chuka Anyogu , Simeon Chibuko Okafor* , Shodeinde Vincent Shoyinka and John Ikechukwu Ihedioha
Keywords: parasitaemia, Erythrophagocytosis, haemolysis, haemosiderosis, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma congolense.
Anaemia is a consistent finding in acute and chronic trypanosomosis and a major contributor to morbidity and mortality in African animal trypanosomosis (AAT). The pathogenesis of anaemia in AAT is both complex, multifaceted and not completely delineated. Some possible patho-mechanisms are popular, including an increase in erythrocyte fragility occasioned by TNF-α from activated macrophages, haemolysis caused by free radicals, and parasite-derived products that cause alterations of red blood cells, predisposing them to erythrophagocytosis. Beyond these, the acquisition of iron from the host by trypanosomes, iron sequestration in the host’s liver and spleen, and RBC sequestration in the enlarged liver and spleen were found to possibly contribute to lowered haematocrit in AAT. The review made special reference to Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense. While the various aetiologies of anaemia are well explained, the beneficial effects of iron sequestration in the liver and spleen and in other cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system require further studies.
| Abenga, J. N., & Anosa, V. O. (2006). Clinical studies on experimental Gambian trypanosomosis in vervet monkeys. Veterinarski Arhiv, 76(1), 11-18. | ||||
| Aguirre, F., Martin, I., Grinspon, D., Ruiz, M., Hager, A., De Paoli, T., Ihlo, J., Farach, H. A., & Poole Jr, C. P. (1998). Oxidative damage, plasma antioxidant capacity, and glucemic control in elderly NIDDM patients. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 24(4), 580-585. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5849(97)00293-1 |
||||
| Ameh, D.A. (1984). Depletion of reduced gluthathione and the susceptibility of erythrocytes to oxidative haemolysis in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei gambeinse. IRCS Journal of Medical Science, 12, 130. | ||||
| Amole, B. O., Clarkson Jr, A. B., & Shear, H. L. (1982). Pathogenesis of anemia in Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice. Infection and Immunity, 36(3), 1060-1068. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.36.3.1060-1068.1982 |
||||
| Anderson, R. J., Cronin, R. E., McDonald, K. M., Schrier, R. W. (1976). Mechanisms of portal hypertension-induced alterations in renal hemodynamics, renal water excretion, and renin secretion, Journal of Clinical Research, 8(4), 964-70 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI108550 |
||||
| Anosa, V. O. (1988). Haematological and biochemical changes in human and animal trypanosomosis, Parts I & II. Revue d' Elevage et de Medicine Ve'te'rinaire des pays Tropicaux, 41(2), 65-78. https://doi.org/10.19182/remvt.8732 |
||||
| Anosa, V. O., & Kaneko, J. J. (1984). Pathogenesis of Trypanosoma brucei infection in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Ultrastructural pathology of the spleen, liver, heart, and kidney. Veterinary Pathology, 21(2), 229-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/030098588402100216 |
||||
| Anyogu, D.C. (2021). Comparison of pathophysiologic effects of experimental Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense infections on the brain and pituitary-adrenal axis of West African dwarf sheep. PhD Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. | ||||
| Anyogu, D. C., Shoyinka, S. V., & Ihedioha, J. I. (2020). Some biochemical perturbations may modify the understanding of trypanotolerance in the West African Dwarf sheep infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense. Clinical Pathology, 13, 2632010X20938389. https://doi.org/10.1177/2632010X20938389 |
||||
| Anyogu, D. C., Shoyinka, S. V., & Ihedioha, J. I. (2022). Brain and pituitary-adrenal lesions of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense infections in the West African Dwarf rams: Is trypanotolerance overrated? Veterinary Pathology, 59(5), 773-781. https://doi.org/10.1177/03009858221100432 |
||||
| Anyogu, D. C., Shoyinka, S. V., & Ihedioha, J. I. (2023). Infection of West African dwarf rams with Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense significantly alter serum electrolytes, redox balance, sperm parameters, and gonadal morphology. Veterinary Research Communications, 47(1), 17-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-022-09921-8 |
||||
| Audu, P. A., Esievo, K. A. N., Mohammed, G., & Ajanusi, O. J. (1999). Studies of infectivity and pathogenicity of an isolate of Trypanosoma evansi in Yankasa sheep. Veterinary Parasitology, 86(3), 185-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(99)00141-7 |
||||
| Authié, E., Boulangé, A., Muteti, D., Lalmanach, G., Gauthier, F., & Musoke, A. J. (2001). Immunisation of cattle with cysteine proteinases of Trypanosoma congolense: targetting the disease rather than the parasite. International Journal for Parasitology, 31(13), 1429-1433. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00266-1 |
||||
| Balber, A. E. (1974). Trypanosoma brucei: attenuation by corticosteroids of the anemia of infected mice. Experimental Parasitology, 35(2), 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4894(74)90024-1 |
||||
| Balogun, E. O., Balogun, J. B., Yusuf, S., Inuwa, H. M., Ndams, I. S., Sheridan, P., Inaoka, D. K., Shiba, T., Harada, S., Kita, K., & Nok, A. J. (2014). Anemia amelioration by lactose infusion during trypanosomosis could be associated with erythrocytes membrane de-galactosylation. Veterinary parasitology, 199(3-4), 259-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.10.013 |
||||
| Banwo, O. G., Popoola, D. O., Achem, J., & Jeremiah, O. T. (2024). Evaluation of hematobiochemical and oxidative stress parameters in natural bovine Trypanosoma brucei infection. Veterinaria, 73(2), 138-149. https://doi.org/10.51607/22331360.2024.73.2.138 |
||||
| Bello, A. M., Abdulsalam, H., Gambo, H. I., Dauda, J. M., Adamu, L., Bukar, M. M., Mbaya, A. W., & Egwu, G. O. (2025). Haematology of Naturally Infected Trypanosoma evansi Cattle in Borno State, Nigeria: Alterations due to Body Condition Score, Breed, Age and Sex. Journal of Research in Veterinary Sciences, 5(3), 243-243. https://doi.org/10.5455/JRVS.20250414065913 |
||||
| Biryomumaisho, S., & Katunguka-Rwakishaya, E. (2007). The pathogenesis of anaemia in goats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma congolense or Trypanosoma brucei: Use of the myeloid: erythroid ratio. Veterinary Parasitology, 143(3-4), 354-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.08.030 |
||||
| Bratosin, D. A. N. A., Mazurier, J., Tissier, J. P., Estaquier, J., Huart, J. J., Ameisen, J. C., Aminoff, D., & Montreuil, J. (1998). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of senescent erythrocyte phagocytosis by macrophages. A review. Biochimie, 80(2), 173-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-9084(98)80024-2 |
||||
| Cheng, T. C., & Kazazian Jr, H. H. (1976). Unequal accumulation of alpha-and beta-globin mRNA in erythropoietic mouse spleen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 73(6), 1811-1815. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.73.6.1811 |
||||
| Çimen, M. B. (2008). Free radical metabolism in human erythrocytes. Clinica chimica acta, 390(1-2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2007.12.025 |
||||
| Cnops, J., De Trez, C., Stijlemans, B., Keirsse, J., Kauffmann, F., Barkhuizen, M., Keeton, R., Boon, L., Brombacher, F., & Magez, S. (2015). NK-, NKT-and CD8-derived IFNγ drives myeloid cell activation and erythrophagocytosis, resulting in trypanosomosis-associated acute anemia. PLoS Pathogens, 11(6), e1004964. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004964 |
||||
| Coustou, V., Plazolles, N., Guegan, F., & Baltz, T. (2012). Sialidases play a key role in infection and anaemia in Trypanosoma congolense animal trypanosomiasis. Cellular Microbiology, 14(3), 431-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01730.x |
||||
| Gobert, A. P., Semballa, S., Daulouede, S., Lesthelle, S., Taxile, M., Veyret, B., & Vincendeau, P. (1998). Murine macrophages use oxygen-and nitric oxide-dependent mechanisms to synthesize S-nitroso-albumin and to kill extracellular trypanosomes. Infection and Immunity, 66(9), 4068-4072. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.66.9.4068-4072.1998 |
||||
| Grosskinsky, C. M., Ezekowitz, R. A., Berton, G., Gordon, S., & Askonas, B. A. (1983). Macrophage activation in murine African trypanosomiasis. Infection and Immunity, 39(3), 1080-1086. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.39.3.1080-1086.1983 |
||||
| Gutteridge, J. M. (1995). Lipid peroxidation and antioxidants as biomarkers of tissue damage. Clinical chemistry, 41(12), 1819-1828. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/41.12.1819 |
||||
| Harvey, J. W. (1997). The erythrocyte: Physiology, metabolism and biochemical disorders. In: Kaneko, J. J., & Harvey, J. W. (eds.), M.L.Bruss Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 5th edition, Academic Press, London. Pp. 157-203. | ||||
| Hess, C. E., Ayers, C. R., Sandusky, W. R., Carpenter, M. A., Wetzel, R. A., & Mohler, D. N. (1976). Mechanism of dilutional anemia in massive splenomegaly. Blood, 47(4), 629-644. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.V47.4.629.629 |
||||
| Igbokwe, I. O., Esievo, K. A. N., Saror, D. I., & Obagaiye, O. K. (1994). Increased susceptibility of erythrocytes to in vitro peroxidation in acute Trypanosoma brucei infection of mice. Veterinary Parasitology, 55(4), 279-286. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(94)90070-1 |
||||
| Igbokwe, I. O., Lafon, J. Y., Umar, I. A., & Hamidu, L. J. (1998). Erythrocyte and hepatic glutathione concentrations in acute Trypanosoma brucei infection of rats. Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 16, 81-83. | ||||
| Isoun, T. T., & Esuruoso, G. O. (1972). Pathology of natural infection of Trypanosoma vivax in cattle. Nigerian Veterinary Journal, 1(2), 42-45. | ||||
| Kariuki, C. K., Stijlemans, B., & Magez, S. (2019). The trypanosomal transferrin receptor of Trypanosoma brucei - A review. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 4(4), 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4040126 |
||||
| Katunguka-Rwakishaya, E., Murray, M., & Holmes, P. H. (1992). Pathophysiology of ovine trypanosomiasis: ferrokinetics and erythrocyte survival studies. Research in Veterinary Science, 53(1), 80-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-5288(92)90089-K |
||||
| Kazazian Jr, H. H., Cheng, T. C., Polmar, S. K., & Ginder, G. D. (1974). Globin mRNA of mouse spleen erythroblasts. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 241(1), 170-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1974.tb21876.x |
||||
| Kurata, M., Suzuki, M., & Agar, N. S. (1993). Antioxidant systems and erythrocyte life-span in mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Comparative Biochemistry, 106(3), 477-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-0491(93)90121-K |
||||
| Kuriakose, S., Onyilagha, C., Singh, R., Olayinka-Adefemi, F., Jia, P., & Uzonna, J. E. (2019). TLR-2 and MyD88-dependent activation of MAPK and STAT proteins regulates proinflammatory cytokine response and immunity to experimental trypanosoma congolense infection. Frontiers in Immunology, 10, 2673. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02673 |
||||
| Logan, L. L., Anosa, V. O., & Shaw, M. K. (1991). Haemopoiesis in Ayrshire-Guarnsey calves infected with Galana stock of Trypanosoma vivax. OAU/STRC. Pp 317-322. | ||||
| Mabbott, N. A., Coulson, P. S., Smythies, L. E., Wilson, R. A., & Sternberg, J. M. (1998). African trypanosome infections in mice that lack the interferon‐γ receptor gene: nitric oxide‐dependent and‐independent suppression of T‐cell proliferative responses and the development of anaemia. Immunology, 94(4), 476-480. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2567.1998.00541.x |
||||
| Mabbott, N., & Sternberg, J. (1995). Bone marrow nitric oxide production and development of anemia in Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice. infection and Immunity, 63(4), 1563-1566. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.63.4.1563-1566.1995 |
||||
| Mach, J., & Sutak, R. (2020). Iron in parasitic protists-from uptake to storage and where we can interfere. Metallomics, 12(9), 1335-1347. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0mt00125b |
||||
| Magez, S., Radwanska, M., Drennan, M., Fick, L., Baral, T. N., Allie, N., Jacobs, M., Nedospasov, S., Brombacher, F., Ryffel, B., & De Baetselier, P. (2007). Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-1 (TNFp55) signal transduction and macrophage-derived soluble TNF are crucial for nitric oxide-mediated Trypanosoma congolense parasite killing. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 196(6), 954-962. https://doi.org/10.1086/520815 |
||||
| Malatji, D. P. (2022). Breeding of African sheep reared under low-input/output smallholder production systems for trypanotolerance. Veterinary World, 15(4), 1031--1043. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2022.1031-1043 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Aliyu, M. M., & Ibrahim, U. I. (2009b). The clinico-pathology and mechanisms of trypanosomosis in captive and free-living wild animals: A review. Veterinary Research Communications, 33(7), 793-809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-009-9214-7 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Aliyu, M. M., Nwosu, C. O., Taiwo, V. O., & Ibrahim, U. I. (2009a). Effects of melarsamine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan®) and diminazene aceturate (Berenil®) on the pathology of experimental Trypanosoma brucei infection in red fronted gazelles (Gazella rufifrons). Veterinary Parasitology, 163(1-2), 140-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.03.036 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Ibrahim, U. I., & Apagu, S. T. (2010). Trypanosomosis of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) and its vectors in the tsetse-free arid zone of North Eastern, Nigeria. Nigerian Veterinary Journal, 31(3), 195-200. https://doi.org/10.4314/nvj.v31i3.68975 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Kumshe, H. A., & Nwosu, C. O. (2012). The mechanisms of anaemia in trypanosomosis. In: Silverberg, D. S (ed.). Anaemia, In Tech. Publishers, Croatia. Pp 270-282. https://doi.org/10.5772/29530 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Nwosu, C. O., & Kumshe, H. A. (2011). Genital lesions in male red fronted gazelles (Gazella rufifrons) experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei and the effect of melarsamine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan®) and diminazene aceturate (Berenil®) in its treatment. Theriogenology, 76(4), 721-728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2011.04.004 |
||||
| Mbaya, A. W., Nwosu, C. O., & Onyeyili, P. A. (2007). Toxicity and anti-trypanosomal effects of ethanolic extract of Butyrospermum paradoxum (Sapotaceae) stem bark in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 111(3), 526-530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.12.020 |
||||
| Moldawer, L. L., Marano, M. A., Wei, H. E., Fong, Y., Silen, M. L., Kuo, G., Manogue, K.R., Vlassara, H., Cohen, H., Cerami, A., & Lowry, S. F. (1989). Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor‐α alters red blood cell kinetics and induces anemia in vivo. The FASEB Journal, 3(5), 1637-1643. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.3.5.2784116 |
||||
| Naessens, J., Kitani, H., Nakamura, Y., Yagi, Y., Sekikawa, K., & Iraqi, F. (2005). TNF-a mediates the development of anaemia in a murine Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection, but not the anaemia associated with a murine Trypanosoma congolense infection. Clinical & Experimental Immunology, 139(3), 405-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02717.x |
||||
| Nairz, M., Dichtl, S., Schroll, A., Haschka, D., Tymoszuk, P., Theurl, I., & Weiss, G. (2018). Iron and innate antimicrobial immunity-depriving the pathogen, defending the host. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 48, 118-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.03.007 |
||||
| Nok, A. J., & Balogun, E. O. (2003). A bloodstream Trypanosoma congolense sialidase could be involved in anemia during experimental trypanosomiasis. Journal of Biochemistry, 133(6), 725-730. https://doi.org/10.1093/jb/mvg093 |
||||
| Nyakundi, J. N., Crawley, B., & Pentreath, V. W. (2002). The relationships between endotoxins, nitric oxide and inflammatory cytokines in blood and intestinal tissues in experimental Trypanosoma brucei brucei infections. Parasitology, 124(6), 597-604. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182002001683 |
||||
| Obi, C.F. (2021). Prevalence, characterisation and pathogenicity of drug-resistant Trypanosomes isolated from naturally infected dogs in Enugu North Senatorial Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria. PhD Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. | ||||
| Obi, C. F., Okpala, M. I., Anyogu, D. C., Onyeabo, A., Aneru, G. E., Ezeh, I. O., & Ezeokonkwo, R. C. (2023b). Comparative pathogenicity of single and mixed drug-resistant Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense infections in rats. Research in Veterinary Science, 162, 104946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.104946 |
||||
| Obi, C. F., Okpala, M. I., Anyogu, D. C., Onyeabor, A., Ezeh, I. O., & Ezeokonkwo, R. C. (2023a). Comparative pathogenicity of drug-resistant and drug-sensitive Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense infections in Nigerian local dogs. Parasitology Research, 122(1), 49-60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-022-07688-0 |
||||
| Ojok, L., Kaeufer-Weiss, I., & Weiss, E. (2001). Bone marrow response to acute and chronic Trypanosoma congolense infection in multimammate rats (Mastomys coucha). Journal of Comparative Pathology, 124(2-3), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.1053/jcpa.2000.0445 |
||||
| Paiva, C. N., Medei, E., & Bozza, M. T. (2018). ROS and Trypanosoma cruzi: Fuel to infection, poison to the heart. PLoS Pathogens, 14(4), e1006928. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006928 |
||||
| Paulnock, D. M., & Coller, S. P. (2001). Analysis of macrophage activation in African trypanosomiasis. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 69(5), 685-690. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.69.5.685 |
||||
| Rabo, J. S. (1995). Toxicity studies and trypanosuppressive effects of stem bark extract of Butyrospermum paradoxum in laboratory animals. PhD Thesis, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria. | ||||
| Sadique, N. A., Adejinmi, J. O., & Ariri, H. (2001). Haematological and plasma protein values of Zebu cattle in trypanosome-endemic zone. Tropical Animal Production Investment, 4, 219-223. | ||||
| Shemsia, M. (2019). Review on African animal trypanosomosis and its control measures. ARC Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 5(4), 34-46. https://doi.org/10.20431/2455-2518.0504004 |
||||
| Slater, T. F. (1984). Free radical mechanism in tissue injury. Biochemical Journal, 222(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1042/bj2220001 |
||||
| Stijlemans, B., De Baetselier, P., Magez, S., Van Ginderachter, J. A., & De Trez, C. (2018). African trypanosomiasis-associated anaemia: the contribution of the interplay between parasites and the mononuclear phagocyte system. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, 218. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00218 |
||||
| Stijlemans, B., Vankrunkelsven, A., Brys, L., Raes, G., Magez, S., & De Baetselier, P. (2010). Scrutinising the mechanisms of underlying the induction of anaemia of inflammation through GPI-mediated modulation of macrophage activation in a model of African trypanosomiasis. Microbes and Infection, 12(5), 389-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2010.02.006 |
||||
| Szempruch, A. J., Sykes, S. E., Kieft, R., Dennison, L., Becker, A. C., Gartrell, A., Martin, W.J., Nakayasu, E.S., Almeida, I. C., Hajduk, S. L., & Harrington, J. M. (2016). Extracellular vesicles from Trypanosoma brucei mediate virulence factor transfer and cause host anaemia. Cell, 164(1), 246-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.051 |
||||
| Takeet, M. I., & Fagbemi, B. O. (2009). Haematological, pathological and plasma biochemical changes in rabbits experimentally infected with Trypanosoma congolense. Science World Journal, 4(2), 29-36. https://doi.org/10.4314/swj.v4i2.51843 |
||||
| Tripodi, K. E., Menendez Bravo, S. M., & Cricco, J. A. (2011). Role of heme and heme‐proteins in trypanosomatid essential metabolic pathways. Enzyme Research, 2011(1), 873230. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/873230 |
||||
| Umar, I. A., Ogenyi, E., Okodaso, D., Kimeng, E., Stancheva, G. I., Omage, J. J., ... & Ibrahim, M. A. (2007). Amelioration of anaemia and organ damage by combined intraperitoneal administration of vitamins A and C to Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected rats. African Journal of Biotechnology, 6(18), 2083-2086. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2007.000-2322 |
||||
| Valli, V. E. O., Forsberg, G. A., & McSherry, B. J. (1978). The pathogenesis of T. congolense in calves: Anaemia and erythroid response. Veterinary Parasitology,15(6), 733-745. https://doi.org/10.1177/030098587801500605 |
||||
| Wada, Y. A., Okubanjo, O. O., Rekwot, P. I., Mohammed, B., & Oniye, S. J. (2020). Patency and clinico-haematological pathologies sequel to Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma evansi induced infections in Yankasa sheep I. Nigerian Veterinary Journal, 41(2), 125-143. https://doi.org/10.4314/nvj.v41i2.5 |
||||
| Wilson, M. E., & Britigan, B. E. (1998). Iron acquisition by parasitic protozoa. Parasitology Today, 14(9), 348-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-4758(98)01294-0 |
||||
Copyright © 2026 Integrity Research Journals. All rights reserved.